In human mobility, tyres are ‘the only contact between the vehicle and road’, to make people move from one point to another ‘safely’.

In land cargo transportation, they are the ‘work horse’ of the supply chain for any goods, whether industrial (raw material) or finished goods. In special applications such as mining, they are ‘mimicking’ pipelines in the oil and gas industry, such as piping where hydraulic pumps replaced by truck engines.

So tyres play a ‘critical role’ in transporting almost anything: ‘people and goods’ when we must deliver on land transport mode.

The challenges: Too many options

Its vital role is not questionable. But having that critical role doesn’t mean it’s easy to handle for the end user.
Why?

In the case of tyres, we know premium brands, regional brands and sometimes local brands. The classic question is: which one is the best?

For personal purposes (PCR), a decision could be made easily with the risk of losing a small amount of money. Simply fitting a tyre according to OEM standards will not be a big issue. The problem arises with fleet companies (trucking or bus) with tens, hundreds or even thousands of units of equipment.

Even riskier when it comes to OTR tyres, where prices can reach tens of dollars or more. It is not easy to pick which one is the best.

How to choose the most suitable tyre for operations?

In order to get the right choice, we must do the following:

1. Define performance indicators: Productivity or efficiency -  Regarding commercial tyres (TB/AG/OTR/IND), performance is defined as productivity and efficiency. These two elements are sometimes aligned and sometimes contradictory.

Which one should be chosen?

It depends on the company’s goal or situation. We must optimise between those two so that it becomes ‘business decision’ and not a solely ‘tyre technical decision’. When productivity takes the lead compared to efficiency

One fleet of 120T giant trucks fitted with 27.00R49 has limitations due to the TKPH caused mainly by long distances, so the real site TKPH is quite high. It limits trucks operating cycles to only 6.5 per shift. It is only transporting coal at 120 T/cycle x 6 cycles = 720 T per shift, while the end user burns fuel without getting tonnage in return for a half cycle.

In this situation, the end user is not sensitive to efficiency; they are more sensitive to how to increase productivity.

When efficiency becomes the driver instead of productivity

The other situation is that coal transporters have problems with tyre costs due to inefficient tyre usage. The end user thinks they made a good choice using the 12.00R24 *** (three-star) rating. They expect a long life, but the outcome is the opposite. Testing was done with bias tyres (12.00-24), 18PR and 20PR. Comparison testing was done for six months, and in the end, we concluded bias tyres were more efficient than radial tyres.

The explanation for why bias tyres perform better than radial tyres comes from a pressure check done with 1,500 points of data show ‘intentional’ pressure reduction.

When it was discussed with site management and the driver, the driver told management that the hauling road was undulating, forcing them to reduce pressure. If they don’t reduce pressure, they will suffer from back pain.

So in terms of truck load, it is not overload, but in terms of tyres, it becomes overload due to low pressure. As bias tyres use nylon as the carcass, they have more resistance to fatigue, whereas radial tyres using steel cord have less resistance to fatigue and are more prone to premature failure.

The common sayings that radial is better than bias, premium is better than normal brand and thicker tread is better than shallow tread are more myths than realities. It all depends on the requirements coming from the field/ operations.

2. Optimise tyre life

The only way to do this is the end user doing an assessment of their requirements for each application, operating condition and site/road condition. This way, they could be able to build up the tyre requirements and externalise their requirement to get the most suitable tyre specification from whichever brand and whichever type of tyres.

With tyre OEMs mostly developing products for the most common applications, the potential performance is not necessarily the best performance on every site, independent of the brand, tyre type etc.

The best suggestion for the end user and OEMs

OEMs should start Co-Creation Value by having close communication from the beginning about actual customer requirements and focusing on creating the most suitable solution rather than the most common approach.

How it becomes practical If fleet truck customers have more than 1,000 trucks and mining customers have at least 100 giant trucks, they would like to have the most suitable product rather than the most common product for their application, as their tyre cost will be significant to gain their attention.

Meanwhile, for OEMs, it is worth to develop tyres with the most suitable solution and treat the customer as Key Account.

How to measure the benefits for each party

For the end user, the more suitable the tyre, the more optimum tyre performance they will have. For OEMs, the measurement is quite simple: calculating the potential life-time value (LTV) of a customer (estimate revenue generated from this customer) compared to the cost-time value (CTV) of the customer (the spending on developing products and maintaining relationship with the customer).

And if LTV/CTV > 1, it is an Attractive Customer. If the estimated LTV/CTV is not attractive enough to be handled, the OEM could focus on another customer.

Summary

• Tyre optimisation for end-user applications is a fair measure, and the actual performance indicator aligns with the temporary business objectives of the end-user that could change over time; one time it will be more productivity focused, the other time it may be efficiency focus.
• Democratisation and an open field for the whole OEM player that is not dogmatised as premium always being better, radial always being better or star rating always being better. It is merely how end-users could define their operational requirements and work together as cocreators with certain OEMs.
• It is not necessary for OEMs to chase all market segments; each OEM could choose where they will be more competitive than others. Meanwhile, for the end-user, they will get high-quality and reliable service from certain OEMs on their tyre usage.

Representational image courtesy: cebmumbai/Facebook

The author is an engineering expert in the mining and truck tyres field. 
The column was first published in August-September 2023 issue of Tyre Trends.

KE FISCHER, the world leader in cord cutting technology, displayed a comprehensive range of products and services tailored to various aspects of tyre manufacturing at the Tire Technology Expo 2024. The company has been raising the bar with its latest cord cutting lines. These lines integrate several cutting-edge technologies, prioritising high productivity, precision and adaptability to meet the ever-changing demands of the tyre industry. Designed for highly automated production processes, KE FISCHER’s cord cutting lines ensure efficient and high-quality tyre manufacturing. This focus on innovation positions the company as a vital partner for tyre companies seeking to optimise their operations and remain competitive.

KE FISCHER showcased the latest developments of its cutting-edge technology in tyre machinery at the Tire Technology Expo 2024, reinforcing its position as a world leader in cord cutting technology.

The exhibition displayed a comprehensive range of products and services tailored to various aspects of tyre manufacturing. The highlighted technologies and services included steel and textile cord cutting lines, extruder technology, RFID lamination lines and offline stations, among others. These products cater to a wide range of tyre types, including those for two- and three-wheelers, passenger cars and SUVs, light trucks, trucks and buses, off-the-road vehicles, agriculture and industrial applications, racing and aircraft, and particular commodities like air springs and conveyor belts.

“The spirit of innovation and continuous technical development that drives KE FISCHER and Tire Technology Expo in Hannover is the perfect place to show our products and the latest innovations and developments to all our customers. It is the place where all tyre manufacturers meet in one spot. So you have all the experts, decision-makers, and interested parties in one place. This is unique,” said Chief Executive Officer Dr Jörn Seevers.

“One of the main focuses in our offerings is the RFID lamination line, as the RFID tyre tag is the only way to ensure traceability following the cradle-to-grave principle,” said Dr Seevers.

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Since its inception over two decades ago, Tire Technology Expo (TTE) has consistently been the top choice for the global tyre industry, particularly for design, raw materials, machinery, and manufacturing suppliers. Tony Robinson, Founder and CEO of UKIP Media & Events, the organiser of TTE, is confident that the expo can be successfully run for the next three decades and beyond, even on a larger scale.

“In France, we launched the TTE in 2001. My goal has always been to commemorate the TTE’s 50th anniversary or more. I’m hoping I’ll still be here then. This year marks the expo’s 22nd edition, which has always been very successful till today. I see no reason why the show will not continue to be very successful. I think more novelties and new ideas will be coming through, which will keep the show alive and exciting. The tyre industry has previously been secretive, but it has now realised that sharing information benefits the entire industry, and I think that openness is something which we are looking forward to, and TTE will be part of that process, getting to the 50th anniversary and beyond,” said Robinson.

Robinson anticipates over 5,000 visitors and approximately 230 exhibitors, including over 20 new entrants from around the world, for the TTE 2023. “All of the well-known companies we have had as our exhibitors throughout the years will be present in force. I also anticipate a very high visitor level. Additionally, we anticipate a sizeable attendance at our conference and short courses. It should therefore be a fantastic show. I would love to see it return to the famous cliché – the pre-pandemic activity level.

This year’s event will also be plagued by uncertainties in China, but Chinese businesses outside China will actively participate and present their solutions. Chinese exhibitors include MESNAC, Sinoarp, CURC and Himile, to name a few. “We will see a reduction in the participation from China. We expect them to return fully by next year,” added Robinson.

Due to their innovations and ground-breaking products, startups in the tyre sector are gaining ground, and TTE provides a low-cost environment to support them.

“We were talking about how some of the smallest businesses produce some of the best innovations the other day. We can offer them discounted entrance fees to provide them exposure on the worldwide stage. Not only that, but we also provide a platform through our conference for young scientists, graduates and postgraduates to deliver their papers, which are frequently very creative and inventive. To support them, we also have a Young Scientist award. In addition, we provide a fantastic platform for new businesses to participate in events,” said Robinson.

However, TTE always misses leading tyre manufacturers on their exhibitors’ list. But it has always been a conscious decision to keep TTE as the suppliers’ show. Continental has been a traditional participant, showcasing its bladder solutions. Michelin has also increased its presence in the show in recent times. “The TTE is a show about manufacturing, raw materials, chemicals and tyre design. Due to the absence of fleet customers as attendees, we do not encourage tyre manufacturers to exhibit. Instead, tyre manufacturing businesses are the ones who come to the expo and conference,” said Robinson.

Robinson asserts that future exhibitor and speaker profiles will be significantly influenced by trends around the development of environmentally preferable tyres in terms of manufacturing, applications and endof-life stage in the tyre industry. The CEO of UKIP Media elaborated on the upcoming trends that will steer TTE, saying, “Being focused on design, materials, equipment and manufacturing, TTE is always interested in upcoming developments. Nonpneumatic tyres really pique my curiosity. It goes without saying that non-pneumatic has many difficulties, but the industry is attempting to find solutions. Data collection from tyres will be another trend in the future. Data capturing provides information on tyre life and conditions and initial stage damages in road surfaces that could aggravate later. Tyre sensors will also play a vital role in autonomous vehicles. There is still room for the development of puncture-proof tyres. Lightweight materials and sustainability will remain a larger focus for the tyre industry.”

Compared to his automotive testing show, Robinson does not intend to take TTE elsewhere. Robinson said, “We have always positioned ourselves as a show in Europe. We claim that the TTE is the premier international tyre design and manufacturing show conducted yearly in Europe. It is the top tyre show not only in Europe but also globally. TTE is a well-known brand that is now in its 22nd year. There are several tyre shows worldwide, but we would love to be a yearly event that serves as the centre point show for tyre manufacturing and design. We would prefer to have that presence than to fragment the show into many different parts of the world.”

Robinson also intends to have conferences and workshops virtually. “Virtually, we cannot hold exhibitions as you cannot demonstrate machinery. However, I never heard of a single exhibitor that was satisfied with what they achieved virtually in the future. So we will augment our leading annual conferences and some of our workshops with virtual presentations that can be made and customised to a virtual environment.

Drawing from countries in Europe and US, Regrip aims to build a network of exchange centres in India. These centres will work as refurbished tyre shops wherein customers come with their old tyres and leave with a refurbished one.

India has finally eased Covid-19 restrictions after over two years of anxiety, fear and vicissitudes. Amid the newly found exuberance of industries, the tyre refurbishing market has rolled out the red carpet for another player – Regrip. The brainchild of Tushar Suhalka and Pratik Rao, Gurugram-based Regrip is committed to make refurbished tyres for commercial vehicles in the country. An insightful conversation with Suhalka revealed how he conceived the idea to build the new-age tyre company to its future plans.

 “There were several factors behind the starting of the business,” stated Suhalka, adding, “I was employed as a sales and business head with a start-up and closely worked with transporters. I realised there was a massive demand for affordable tyres as new tyres were getting costly by the day. In the last two years, new tyre prices have shot up by 25 percent and still continue to rise owing to a hike in fuel prices.” 

He added, “Transporters have to spend a great deal of money on fuel and tyres. As fuel expenses cannot be curtailed, they tend to retract on tyre spending. For big fleet owners, procuring tyres is a massive expense as the drivers don’t care much about tyre life while driving, and it adds to the operational costs. The ban on Chinese tyres added to their sorrows as the low-cost tyres had owned 35-40 percent market share by 2016.” 

“Secondly, tyres do not decompose. End-of-life tyres are used to make either reclaimed rubber, carbon black, pyrolysis oil or they end up in landfills. Most of the end-of-life tyres are used in furnaces, causing pollution. Only 20 percent of tyres in the country is recycled while the rest end up in landfills and as furnace oil. Hence, I came up with the idea of buying used tyres, recycling them and supplying the refurbished wheels to transporters,” he explained. 

The executive feels that there is a need for refurbished tyre companies in India that ensure quality through standardised processes. Regrip also provides warranty on its tyres, which are at par with new tyres in terms of life, claimed Suhalka. 

The company procures old tyres from the open market and other sources and then processes them. Regrip adheres to standard criteria to procure the tyres for ensuring quality

While procuring tyres, the first step to be followed is checking the tyre quality, the casing and rubber strength. The second step comprises examining the rubber wheels for any leakage on the body or cracks on the sidewalls.

Once the wheels reach the manufacturing unit, they are again subjected to 25-30 quality parameters before further processing. 

Speaking on how the tyres are procured, Suhalka explained, “We have developed a procurement cell that buys wheels from three channels. We procure tyres from big fleet owners.”

“Our second procurement channel is the open market. Small transporters sell their tyres to old tyre dealers who then bring them to their hub. These dealers pick up tyres each day from a number of small transporters in a given locality. The lot includes scrap tyres, torn tyres etc. They then segregate it into three categories. The first category comprises tyres that can be retreaded. The second has tyres that are a little torn and can be used as a Stepney, and the last has bad tyres. Hence, we buy tyres from the first category,” he added. 

The third channel facilitates buying tyres directly from the transporters.

 Drawing from counties in Europe and US, Regrip aims to build a network of exchange centres in India. 

These centres will work as refurbished tyre shops wherein customers come with their old tyres and leave with a refurbished one. 

The company has embarked on a journey to create such a model through its dealer networks on the highway in different cities. It plans to identify petrol pumps and shanties on highways to set shops. 

The customers coming to the shop will log into the company’s app to facilitate data analysis of the old tyre. They will then be quoted a price for the old wheel, which will be deducted from the original price of the refurbished one. 

These shops will operate on 100 percent cash basis. The company plans to enter into the franchise model for the exchange centres. 

The executive believes that the new-age model will ensure quality and warranty alongside building a new channel to procure old tyres. It will also save time, money and labour. 

Iterating on the cost effectiveness and tyre life, Suhalka said, “Our tyres are 50-55 percent cheaper than a new tyre. We save 56 litres of oil and 44 kilograms of raw materials while making a refurbished tyre. Our tyres have been tested to run between 85-90 percent of new tyre mileage when fitted properly.” 

Currently, Regrip has a capacity to roll out 3,000 tyres a month from its manufacturing unit in Sona industrial area, Gurugram. The factory uses automatic machinery and is powered by solar energy emitting zero carbon footprint. The company also has plans to lease a plant in Pune or Hyderabad to expand its operations. 

Answering whether Regrip plans to foray into other tyre segments, the company director informed, “We have OTR tyres in our kitty but focus only on commercial tyres as their utilisation is high. The commercial tyre market is huge in the country with over 8.5 million trucks plying on the roads.

 Commenting on whether the ban on Chinese tyres has bolstered their operations, Suhalka contended, “The ban on Chinese tyres has not influenced us as we are a new company that started operations seven months ago. We have received an immense response with a 95 percent repeat order rate. Even if Chinese tyres come into the market, it won’t be a threat for us as there is no warranty on the tyres. However, the ban has accelerated our acceptance. Moreover, they have changed the buying behaviour of the customers.” 

The company has a sales team with over a decade of experience in the domain. The entire team is of veterans, which has allowed Regrip to ensure quality and have a robust dealer network. 

Speaking on the challenges, Suhalka said, “The retreading market is mostly unorganised and many players operate on cash basis. Secondly, the market is unorganised. Thirdly, transporters want low prices, ignoring quality; hence, we have to make them understand the benefits of our tyres.” 

“Our vision is to build a habit where customers will shed their old tyres and take a new one through exchange points. Secondly, we want to develop the model across the highways for commuters. We are also planning to digitise the entire process from procurement to selling through our app. This process is 50 percent complete,” added Suhalka. 

Regrip has also come up with a tyre financing model and claims to be its pioneer. It has partnered with NBFCs who extend financing services exclusively to its customers. The pilot project has been launched in Jaipur. 

The company had raised INR 5 million before production started. The executive also hinted at associating with founders of major companies as its investors. 

Talking about future plans, Suhalka informed, “We are planning to deploy a plant at Gandhi Dham as it will help in lowering the logistic costs and also increase the procurement market. We plan to build a 1,000-dealer network and sell 10,000 tyres in the next three years. We have plans to export tyres to East Africa and UAE.” 

The company has sold 2,000 tyres in seven months with zero spend on marketing. Currently, it has a footprint in NCR, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh. It has also started operations on a small scale in Telangana. 

Innovation, similar to communication, which I touched on in the previous issue of Tyre Trends, is a somewhat elusive subject as far as modern organisations are concerned. My intention here is not to delve into the subject’s intricacies but to share my experiences and views with the readers.

I do not know if I am the best person to touch on customer psyche from a marketing perspective. However, on thinking widely and looking at the big picture, I feel I am not very far from the truth that we are all engaged in putting our ideas across and understanding, or very often misunderstanding, relationships and dependencies throughout our lives, be it in family or social and business circles. In other words, we are marketers in the sense that we seek agreement to our views and expect a positive response from those with whom we associate. The Buddha, in one of his discourses, has indicated that the world depends 100 percent on relationships. This is equally applicable to all phenomena in nature, including human relationships. The quality of the relationships is the key determinant of the success or failure of the quality of any human activity. On thinking broadly, quality is a rather evasive term with a wide variety of interpretations, reminding us of the proverbial ‘seven blind men and the elephant’. 

My experience with the ISO certifications naturally prompts me to seek information from the ISO standards. A widely accepted and general definition of quality is the level to which requirements are fulfilled. According to the ISO 9001:2015 QMS, the customer requirements are broadly categorised as: (a) stated requirements, (b) implied requirements and (c) compliance obligations dealing with statutory and regulatory, and other legal requirements. Requirements stated by the customers are apparently straightforward but may need careful evaluation, while the implied requirements need to be invariably derived using the available information and the experience of the supplier or the manufacturer.

At the very beginning, the ISO 9001:2015 standard gives top priority to understanding the context of the organisation, which takes in to account the external and internal issues as well as the expectations of the external and internal interested parties while assessing the business risks and opportunities associated with the same. It is rather discouraging to note that many companies do not pay the due attention to Clause 4.0 in their quality management systems.

The concept of ‘internal customer’ is another important area that is apparently taken for granted in many companies despite the complex dependency and the independency between the processes and the process owners. The several ‘meetings’ that the managers are frequently engaged in – to the level of becoming a malady – could be the outcome of not paying attention to the ‘internal customer’. Habits 4, 5 and 6 of Stephen Covey’s ‘The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People’, namely Think Win/Win; Seek First to Understand, Then to Be Understood and Synergize, can be of valuable guidance in interpersonal relationships. Not understanding the requirements of the ’internal customer’ or the next in line in the value adding process has created closed domains and ivory towers within organisations.

As I have mentioned in one of my previous articles, ‘social distancing’ cannot be considered as post-Covid addition to our vocabulary. Its origins can be traced back to the post industrial revolution, when the traditional craftsmanship and cottage industries gave way for mass production system, which simultaneously resulted in mass de-personalisation. Individual craftsmanship was the norm in my native village in Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) in the fifties. I presume that some of the surviving ‘baby boomers’ can recollect similar experiences in their own countries. Pride of ownership and personal reputation were considered in high esteem – sometimes even at the expense of a little extra profit..

Notwithstanding the tremendous benefits accrued by way of increasing the agility and responsiveness with tools and conveniences of modern communications in the modern organisations, the distancing of relationships has introduced new problems. The importance given to the ‘personal touch’ appears to be the hallmark of an extinct species.

On the same lines, I remember an episode from my days in Nairobi, Kenya in the early nineties, how the owner of a well-known chain of hotels got his Harvard MBA son to work in a hotel kitchen as his first job and set a practical example of humanely understanding the customer psyche. Similarly, when I joined the Bata Shoe Company in 1969 as a management trainee, the first training we were given was to work in the retail shops for one week, irrespective of whether we are going to end up in marketing, purchasing, finance, technical or quality control. I still possess the leaflet we were given on the first day we joined the company, the contents of which goes as follows:

WHO IS A CUSTOMER

• A customer is the most important person ever in our business…in person or by mail.

• Customers are not an interruption to our work…they are the purpose of it.

• We are not doing them a favour by serving them…they are doing us a favour by giving us an opportunity to serve them.

• Customers are not dependent on us…we are dependent on them.

• A customer is not an outsider to our business…but a part of it.

• Customers are not cold statistics…they are flesh and blood human beings with feelings and emotions like our own, and with biases and prejudices. 

• A customer is not someone to argue…and match wits with. Nobody ever won an argument with a customer.

• Customers are people who bring us their wants. It is our job to handle them profitably, to them and to ourselves.

Honestly, I should say that as a freshly joined management trainee in 1969, it took me many years to realise the implications of these time-honoured pearls of wisdom about interpersonal relationships. With the proliferation of online sales and e-marketing, the customer has become an obscure or virtual figure or a non-entity. Going to the bank and exchanging greetings with the counter clerk or having a friendly chat with the vegetable or fruit vendor down the street is a thing of the past and a luxury which only a few retired persons like me can afford to enjoy.

Voluminous studies and research have been done in the past from the time the human relations approach to management which started about 100 years ago. It is still an area that the modern day management thinkers, CEOs and specialists of the many disciplines related to human behaviour are grappling with. New theories and hypotheses are continually emerging. The modern managers are very often overwhelmed by the challenge of discerning the trees from the forest, and I am aware about two companies in my own country that were duped by ‘marketing experts’ – to spend millions on magnanimous customer relations programmes which proved to be failures.

Customer satisfaction is a requirement of performance evaluation under Clause 9.0 of ISO 9001:2015. Some companies have developed rather intricate quantitative methods to evaluate customer satisfaction. Poor response rates are a common trend unless the products or the services are of a high level of importance and the consequences of failures are catastrophic. The cost of not fully comprehending what the customers want can be high and the consequences can sometimes be disastrous.

The behaviour and body language – the genuine vs the artificial smile – can be easily spotted. It could be the glittering front office of a large multinational company or an airline check-in counter or the flight cabin itself. Or it may be a small kiosk or a boutique in a remote village. The underlying principles are the same. The courteous, patient and the enduring etiquette of the saree vendors in many parts of India and the remarkable business success of some minor communities in Sri Lanka provide good examples of staying close to the customers.

Customer satisfaction is the extent to which we strive to meet the needs of the customers. However, the way the modern market promotion and advertising is continuously striving to create new needs and wants with only the financial bottom-line as the supreme priority makes me wonder if we have a ‘hen and the egg’ situation in modern business. It was Mahatma Gandhi who once said, “The world has enough for everyone's need, but not enough for everyone's greed.”

According to a recent market study, some common pitfalls of poor customer experience are enumerated as:

a) Rushing it

b) Losing focus

c) Assuming satisfaction, loyalty, advocacy is the same

d) Letting the stakeholders to influence the customers

e) Making rash decisions

f) Comparing apples to oranges

g) Keeping it as a secret

h) Ignoring the data

i) Thinking short term

j) Standing still

Some important aspects to be considered in understanding the customer behaviour have been identified as follows:

• Marketing positioning and distribution

• Personal factors such as age, gender, education and upbringing

• Psychological factors such as buying motives, perceptions and attitudes

• Situational factors such as physical surroundings, social surroundings and time factor

• Social factors such as social status, reference groups, social media and family

• Cultural factors such as religion and ethnicity

• Lifestyle factors such as status, income and identity

• Geographical factors such as the country, religion, urban or rural

With all due respect to the modern approaches to understanding the customers, I find it opportune to cite a far-reaching teaching from the Buddhist doctrine which has deeper management implications on interpersonal relationships. Once the Buddha noticed a young person called Sigala, from an affluent Brahmin family, worshiping reverently at different directions after having his ritualistic bath at the Ganges. It was found that he was following the death wish of his late father. The Buddha explained to him the real significance of the six directions of worship, which is a lesson for the modern managers on harmonious interpersonal relationships. The discourse covers in great detail the duties and responsibilities of the different stakeholders of the social fabric, namely:

• Parents-children

• Students-teachers

• Husband-wife

• Friends and associates

• Employer-employee

• Individual-religious fraternity

It can be seen how these interactive factors cover every aspect of our lives on a life course approach, irrespective of geographical, national, social and religious boundaries, in a world made complicated by our own ambitions and actions.