Recently, models on the fate of tyre wear particles (TWPs) have estimated that 18% of TWP emissions are transported from roads to freshwater bodies and approximately 2% are led out to estuaries and then marine habitats. What then happens to the remaining 16% of TWP emissions left in the freshwater compartment is not yet clear

The presence of tyre wear particles (TWP) in the aquatic environment is considered an emerging contaminant, and one that has gained increasing interest during the past few years. Although the presence of TWPs in the environment is given greater attention these days, TWPs have probably been present since the dawn of the pneumatic car tyre production in the late 19th century. The first scientific report of tyre dust identification along a roadside was published in 1961. Different perspectives have since been applied to this field of research and almost decade by decade shifted foci from degradation patterns to heavy metal release, to impacts of scrap tyres on the aquatic environment and leaching of chemicals from tyres. More recently, research within this field has been directed towards repurposing scenarios using crumb rubber in turf fields and playground material. Finally, in the 2010s, micronised tyre rubber has become grouped with other polymer debris and hence become part of the polymer landscape usually referred to as ‘microplastics.’ TWPs are considered to represent the majority of microplastics (or polymer debris) in the environment, and the newest calculation on the wear of tyres is estimated at 0.81 kg per person per year.

Now, looking at TWPs through the lens of microplastic pollution, research and information from the microplastics field are very well applicable to TWPs in many instances. With this new perspective of TWPs, increasing awareness of possible adverse effects in the environment follows - how do TWPs distribute in the different environmental compartments (soil, air, sediment, water and biota (living organisms)) and how do TWPs behave when exposed to different abiotic factors in these environmental compartments. For example, UV-radiation or pH, temperature and salinity differences could affect TWPs, but to what degree? A recent paper on this very subject concluded that particularly temperature and mechanical stress could influence the toxicity of TWPs. The focus of tyre production and function have seemingly always been directed towards maximising the three hallmarks: grip, wear and rolling resistance, and rightfully so, but somewhere along the road we forgot to consider where tyre abrasion actually disappears to. Luckily, some scientists already thought of this and today we can begin to lay the foundation to our collected TWP knowledge, based on the available scientific literature.

From roads to water

Research shows that the minority of TWPs end up in the airborne fraction (0.1-10%) and recently TRWPs have been assessed to contribute a low risk to human health in the particulate matter (PM) PM2.5 and PM10 range. So, where to find the remaining 90.0-99.9% of tyre debris emissions? Early research on particulate distribution showed a decreasing concentration of TWPs with increasing distance from the road. From there, TWPs are expected to wash off during rainfalls, transporting them to different environmental compartments. Recently, models on the fate of TWPs have estimated that 18% of TWP emissions are transported from roads to freshwater bodies and approximately 2% are led out to estuaries and then marine habitats. What then happens to the remaining 16% of TWP emissions left in the freshwater compartment is not yet clear and more research is needed to answer this question.

Aquatic organisms living in the water column or the sediment can interact with TWPs in their natural habitats during this particle transportation through freshwater to the marine environment. Although there are no scientific references on field observations of TWP ingestion by aquatic biota yet, few recent observations of this behaviour under controlled laboratory settings have been reported. In 2009 the first observation of the water flea, Daphnia magna, ingesting TWPs was described in the scientific literature and only two years ago the first photos were published showing ingestion of TWPs in the benthic amphipod Gammarus pulex following sediment exposure. Shortly thereafter photos of TWP ingestion in the amphipod Hyalella azteca and opossum shrimps from the mysidae family followed after water-only exposures, and most recently freshwater and marine fish species have been documented ingesting TWPs under laboratory conditions.

The recent focus on particulate effects of TWPs on biota is still in its infancy and the latest development in this field investigates the possible effects of both the particulate fraction and the leachate fraction. The leachate fraction is the suite of chemicals that leach out from TWPs to the surrounding water. Previously, tyre toxicity investigations in the aquatic environment revolved solely around the leachate fraction, which has been the primary focus over the last 30 years. Among the first papers the effect of whole tyre leachate was investigated showing worn tyre leachate to exhibit greater toxicity than leachate from a pristine tyre to rainbow trout. Furthermore, decreasing toxicity was observed with increasing salinity indicating that salinity either influences the leachability of toxic constituents or that an interaction of salts and toxic chemicals is present. Exposure of shredded tyre chips to different bacteria likewise showed a correlation between decreasing toxicity and increasing salinity, concluding that tyre leachate is likely to be a greater threat to freshwater habitats than to estuarine or marine habitats.

Toxicity pattern

Further testing of TWPs and leachate on a freshwater species recently showed a dissimilar toxicity pattern when comparing acute toxicity responses of TWPs or leachate. Here, the amphipod H. azteca was exposed to either TWPs in freshwater or the leachate fraction alone, i.e. with no particulates present. This showed that leachate was more toxic in lower concentrations, presumably because dissolved chemicals are more bioavailable. Although, at higher concentrations, the particle fraction of TWPs became more toxic. This phenomenon very well describes the complexity and discrepancies when working with TWPs in the aquatic environment. It is not just a question of determining toxicity of a single chemical under controlled settings, but rather investigating a mixture of many chemicals in changing ambient environments. This complex matrix of polymer and chemicals can be more or less bound to the particle, which in itself might have adverse effects. However, the particle could also function as a vessel, containing chemicals and making them more or less bioavailable depending on the surrounding environment. Discovering exactly which chemicals leach out under different exposure scenarios, and most importantly, what of that is actually bioavailable to aquatic living species is the more interesting question to answer.

Due to the amorphous nature of rubber, end-of-life tyres (ELTs) have been used as leachate collection material and been used to collect polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and metals from contaminated waters. This discrepancy between the different TWP uses that in some cases could deem toxic and have adverse effects but at the same time might serve to mitigate other environmental issues is a great conflict of contradictory traits. Now, we need to unravel exactly when these contradictory traits are possibly affecting aquatic environments negatively and when these traits might be used for our advantage.

So how do scientists quantify TWPs and chemical constituents or ‘biomarkers’ from TWP leachate in water? The quick answer is that no tried and tested procedure is more right than any other now, we simply do not have conformity or guidelines on how to do this. Especially when looking to find particulates from tyre debris, as this is not usually detected when investigating for other polymer debris e.g. microplastics. Therefore, it is expected that the total amount of microplastics has been underestimated due to the lack of data from TWPs, which make up a large part of the estimated microplastic load worldwide and have not been reported on a regular basis. A multitude of methods have been used to estimate TWP emissions by measuring the concentration of chemicals in samples, with more or less success over the years. The biomarkers that have been used to determine TWP concentration most successfully include quantification of benzothiazoles and zinc. Both chemicals are used as part of the vulcanisation process and are also ubiquitous in nature. They are used for manufacturing of other materials, but specific versions can be attributed mainly to tyre manufacturing and are thus the most reliable compounds to measure.

How this emerging field of tyre ecotoxicology will progress ultimately depends on cooperation between different stakeholders having a common goal to pursue. The one thing that we can probably all agree on, is the need for tyres and other rubber products in our society. How we then fill that need, and what future decisions we make to maximise our understanding of the possible negative implications of TWPs in the aquatic environment is of paramount importance. Our job now is to continue our research within this field and ultimately prevent excess and unnecessary pollution of the water bodies that we all depend on, in a manner that stays true to both the environment and our need for safe and reliable tyres. 

*The author is a PhD student in Environmental Biology at Roskilde University, Department of Natural Science and Environment, Denmark, with funds from Danish Environmental Analysis

References

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HS HYOSUNG ADVANCED MATERIALS has completed and commenced operation of a 17.5-MWp rooftop solar power installation at its facility in Vietnam’s Nhon Trach Industrial Park, located within Dong Nai Province. This marks a significant step in the company’s broader effort to reshape its Vietnam operations – its largest global manufacturing base for tyre cords and technical yarns – into what it terms a ‘Smart Green Factory’. By merging renewable energy infrastructure with digital energy management systems, developed in partnership with the energy IT specialist Nuriflex, the firm is positioning this site at the forefront of its transition towards becoming a global eco-friendly manufacturing hub.

A key element of this transformation is the deployment of an Internet of Things based energy management system, which allows for real-time oversight of electricity generation and equipment performance. This digital layer not only streamlines operational efficiency but also contributes to greater equipment reliability and overall productivity gains, ensuring that the integration of renewable energy delivers tangible improvements beyond simple power generation.

With further solar installations set to be completed by August, total rooftop capacity at the Nhon Trach site will reach 37.5 MWp. Once fully operational in the latter half of the year, HS HYOSUNG ADVANCED MATERIALS anticipates annual electricity cost savings exceeding KRW 6 billion (approximately USD 3.94 million), bolstering its cost competitiveness. The expansion is also expected to deliver meaningful reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, reinforcing the company’s long-term commitment to sustainable management practices.

Through advanced energy IoT solutions, the Vietnam subsidiary now systematically manages carbon reduction data generated from its solar power operations. This capability enables a more structured response to rising demands from major global customers – including Michelin, Bridgestone, Goodyear, Continental and Pirelli – for verified renewable energy usage and carbon emissions information. By strengthening its ESG performance across the supply chain, the company is leveraging its solar infrastructure and smart energy management not merely as facility investments but as strategic tools to enhance environmental responsibility and competitiveness in a market where sustainable value chains are increasingly essential.

“Starting with our Vietnam production base, we are simultaneously promoting renewable energy transition and energy efficiency improvements across our operations. By expanding solar power facilities, we will strengthen both cost competitiveness and ESG capabilities while proactively responding to the evolving requirements of our global customers,” said an official from HS HYOSUNG ADVANCED MATERIALS.

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The Association of Natural Rubber Producing Countries (ANRPC) has released its Monthly NR Statistical Report for February 2026, detailing a period of significant market activity influenced by geopolitical tensions, macroeconomic changes and shifting supply-demand dynamics within the global natural rubber sector.

As per the report, global natural rubber production for 2026 is forecast to reach 15.324 million tonnes, a 2.2 percent increase from the 14.996 million tonnes recorded in 2025. February output alone is projected at 994,000 tonnes, marking a 3.4 percent year-on-year rise due to favourable weather and higher rubber prices. Despite this overall growth, production trends vary among member nations. While Thailand is expected to remain the top producer, Indonesia and Vietnam face short-term constraints from structural and agronomic issues. Meanwhile, Malaysia is advancing efforts to restore abandoned plantations, with the Rubber Production Incentive activated in Sarawak and Sabah and the Malaysian Rubber Board targeting the rehabilitation of 4,137 hectares of idle land in 2026.

Physical and futures markets saw notable price increases across major grades in February. In Kuala Lumpur, SMR-20 averaged USD 2.01 per kilogramme, a 5.13 percent monthly gain, while STR-20 in Bangkok rose 5.12 percent to USD 2.11 per kilogramme. Sheet rubber grades also strengthened, with RSS-3 increasing 7.84 percent to USD 2.35 per kilogramme and RSS-4 in Kottayam surging 10.38 percent to USD 2.34 per kilogramme. Centrifuged latex in Kuala Lumpur closed the month at USD 1.61 per kilogramme. Futures mirrored this firming trend, as the Shanghai Futures Exchange May 2026 contract averaged roughly 16,508 CNY (approximately USD 2,388) per tonne and the SGX contract averaged USD 1.92 per kilogramme, supported by strong demand and tightening supply expectations ahead of the seasonal low-yield period from February to May.

Crude oil volatility added further complexity, with Brent averaging USD 70.89 per barrel in February – up 6.43 percent from January – before spiking to approximately USD 104 per barrel in early March following military actions in the Middle East and the closure of the Strait of Hormuz, a conduit for nearly 20 percent of global oil supply. This has introduced a risk premium with implications for synthetic rubber competitiveness and natural rubber demand. Currency shifts also play a role, as the Malaysian Ringgit appreciated modestly to 3.89 MYR per USD and the Thai Baht strengthened to around 31.08 THB per USD by late February, affecting trade competitiveness. Looking ahead, rising automotive production, especially of new energy vehicles in China, India and Southeast Asia, is expected to sustain demand and support prices. However, risks persist from US-China trade tensions, Middle East geopolitical instability, weather uncertainties during the low-yield season and currency fluctuations tied to US monetary policy, all of which could disrupt supply chains and export revenues.

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Tokyo Zairyo Co., Ltd., a wholly owned subsidiary of Zeon Corporation, marked a significant milestone in November 2025 by establishing a new branch office in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. Following the completion of all necessary preparations, this location has now commenced full-scale operations. The move represents a deliberate effort to broaden the company’s commercial reach across the Indian market while simultaneously constructing an organizational structure capable of responding with greater agility to the evolving and increasingly diverse requirements of its customers.

This southern expansion comes approximately 15 years after the company first established its Indian subsidiary, Tokyo Zairyo (India) Pvt. Ltd., with an office in Gurugram, Haryana, in 2011. By positioning a second office in Chennai, the firm now operates a coordinated network spanning the northern and southern regions of the country. Close collaboration between the two locations is intended to strengthen information services and enhance user support, leveraging both internal capabilities and external partnerships to better serve Japanese automotive parts manufacturers and processors operating throughout India.

Through this dual-office structure, Tokyo Zairyo is poised to advance its core business of purchasing and selling a broad spectrum of materials, including rubber, resins and elastomers. The synchronised operations in Gurugram and Chennai enable the company to deliver more responsive support, ensuring that clients across the Indian automotive supply chain benefit from efficient service and a reliable supply of essential materials.

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Kuraray Co., Ltd. has announced a comprehensive global price adjustment for its portfolio of Liquid Rubber products and ISOBAM alkaline water-soluble polymer. These changes, which are set to take effect on 16 April 2026, will see prices rise by at least USD 2 per kg.

The driving forces behind these significant pricing actions are multifaceted, rooted in substantial disruptions to global supply chains. These disruptions are largely attributed to the ongoing conflict in the Middle East, which has had a cascading effect on logistics. Compounding this issue are the sharply rising costs associated with transportation and essential raw materials.

This strategic move is essential for the company to maintain operational stability and continue the supply of Liquid Rubber and ISOBAM amidst the volatile market conditions.

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