By Gerald Böse, President and CEO, Koelnmesse

The successful premiere of THE TIRE COLOGNE is a confirmation of our long and intensive preparations. After all, from the first announcement in 2014 until the trade fair in 2018, we worked for four years in cooperation with the industry on the concept, services on supporting events, initiated world-wide information and marketing campaigns and incorporated partners for many themes. We have convinced exhibitors and visitors to THE TIRE COLOGNE with our event concept and a new orientation, with the high quality of visitors, a generously dimensioned hall offering and a strong concept in terms of content, and received a unanimous vote from the international tyre and wheel industry: Cologne is the leading international meeting point of the industry right from the start!

However, this doesn't mean we can rest on our laurels. Our thinking and action are oriented to continuing further development: we see ourselves as part of the international tyre and wheel industry, and also want to provide impulses in terms of content that are of use to the industry for future development. Every industry requires perspectives on how the future orientation and potential for further growth can be developed and realised. In our concept we have defined clear strategic and conceptual goals that point out and realise these perspectives.

1. the independent and comprehensive reflection of the industry at all levels, at a glance and at the right time.

2. the internationalisation of all relevant industry segments.

3. the generation of new visitor target groups. In addition to the themes of online commerce and workshop services, we have in this way addressed important target groups like fleet managers and transport companies and attracted them to Cologne. We have also clearly emphasised the theme of recycling, which has to date only been treated inadequately – additional added value for industry and commerce. This has all worked very well, but there is still much more potential for further expansion. Accordingly, we analysed all areas and thematic focuses and verified development potential here and there. For example, we want to expand the Recycling/Retreading, Workshop and Services sections, but also the over arching theme of digitalisation. To this purpose, we are already involved in an intensive exchange with potential exhibitors, organisations and partners.

We have thus already achieved the most important goal of comprehensively reflecting the entire industry. I especially emphasise this because we are now in a two-year cycle. However, the premiere in 2018 had a run up period of nearly four years, extending from the announcement that the industry was switching to Cologne to the first event. Almost five months prior to the opening of the fair, more than 90 per cent of the planned exhibition areas have already been rented -in comparison to the final result of 2018, even almost 95 per cent in comparison with the original planning for 2018. More than 400 companies have already confirmed their participation in THE TIRE COLOGNE 2020, including nearly all well-known key accounts from the focus segments. THE TIRE COLOGNE is thus the world's only B2B platform to present the top brands of the international tyre world. We will be making smaller adjustments, for example, in the hall planning, in order to optimise further here. In concrete terms, this means that the big key players will not exclusively be placed in Halls 6 and 7, but some now also in Hall 8. This ensures even more optimal distribution of visitors to all halls of THE TIRE COLOGNE, and at the same time reinforces the segments of car services and workshop outfitting. Hall 9, with the focus on the themes of tyre remoulding and recycling, will also be made more attractive for exhibitors and visitors, in that the "Global Retreading Conference" and the Recycling Forum will also take place here. In addition, the "Future Mobility" special area will also be realised in Hall 9 for the first time.

With the "Future Mobility" special area, THE TIRE COLOGNE wants to take a look into the future and point to questions that affect the industry: how will mobility change in the future? What impact will changes have on people and society? What does changed mobility mean for the product tyres? And what effect will this have on the tyre industry? Answers to these questions will be provided by, among others, Dr Sascha Peters, one of the most renowned material and technology experts in Europe, who will discuss the theory and practice revolving around the product of tyres and possible changes in the future in the context of the special event. As a highlight and at the same time as a stimulus for active participation, a driving course is being planned for the "Future Mobility" special event, where autonomous or electrically powered vehicles will be in use.

The event programme is oriented to questions that currently affect the industry – whether this involves innovative further developments or a theme that affects every one against the background of climate change: sustainability. With the "Recycling Forum," we offer a complete overview of the decisive aspects in the field of tyre recycling and sustainability. And sustainability of course also plays an important role for the Global Retreading Conference. The conference is a one-time opportunity to take a global look at thedecisive trends and developments of the retreading industry. The focus this time is on "Retreading as Best Practise for the Circular Economy."

An important theme we are emphasising for THE TIRE COLOGNE in a targeted fashion is "digitalisation." Digitalisation affects us all and is causing a dramatic change in all areas of life. The digital transformation opens up big chances for more qualityof life, new business models and more efficient business economy. In the framework of the Digital Strategy, Koelnmesse deals with all aspects of digitalisation that are or might become relevant for the company and the trade fair business. And digitalisation has also long since arrived in the tyre industry. With various sessions on the stage of THE TIRE COLOGNE, we will show what digitalisation already means today for all participants of the tyre industry, and how it can be used for your business.

The digital transformation remains a definitive theme of decisive importance for the future focus at Koelnmesse, but surely also for the tyre and wheel industry. For us as Koelnmesse, digitalisation is the central development programme in the company, on which more than 100 of our own employees are working. The goal is the successful transfer of the core business of the trade fair into the digital world: through the development of digital services and business models, the improvement of internal processes, the digitalisation of the fair grounds and the expansion of the corresponding trade fair themes. The programme includes both projects that have already been in existence for a longer period of time, such as ticket and access systems, or a digital sales system introduced two years ago, but also new themes like the digitalisation of traffic management or digital signage, a joint project with Samsung. It unites route guidance, infotainment and advertising on more than 200 m² of digital area and is currently being further expanded upon – and is of course being used for THE TIRE COLOGNE.

Digitalisation influences markets and needs – as well as our exhibitors and visitors. Digitalisation is therefore a strong aspect for the tyre and wheel industry, because it permeates trends and changes. In order to intensify this understanding and be able to react to possible challenges "just in time," THE TIRE COLOGNE, together with the IFH, the Institut für Handelsforschung in Cologne, has carried out an extensive study and survey of the tyre trade in five core markets - in Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, France and Poland. The goal of the study is to verify the themes of relevance to the trade in the respective countries, and how it reacts to challenges, whether with regard to digital transformation, digital tools, trends or recruiting staff. Very informative were the findings, and in some cases very different findings in the countries surveyed – also and in particular with regard to the theme of digitalisation and the use of digital tools to address and secure the loyalty of customers.

However, the study is only the first step of this project. We will soon also be offering the specialised trade the possibility to benchmark itself and its service profile against the European average at the website of THE TIRE COLOGNE. With the comparative result of the "Fit forthe Future" test, the participant also immediately receives a brief analysis and possible approaches to solutions, which could be of benefit for the further development of their own business.

The international tyre and wheel industry is strong and has great potential. However, it must at the same time invest in order to assure this potential. THE TIRE COLOGNE will contribute to this development as the leading international industry platform!

 ( Kindly Note:  THE TIRE COLOGNE has been postponed until 2021. The organisers yet to declare new dates)

 

Extensive study,  survey supplemented with Fit for Future test

As the leading platform for tyres and wheels, THE TIRE COLOGNE sees itself not only as a business hub that brings together all relevant players from industry and trade in one place. Much more than this, it sees its task in the presentation of themes and content that benefit the future development of the industry. "We see ourselves as part of the industry and want to point out solutions for the constant market changes, with the goal of setting sustainable impulses for the development of the industry. This is the bar we have set for ourselves. This year we initiated a study in five European core markets, the results of which will provide all market participants with a better understanding of the function of the respective markets and the challenges there. Building on the results of the study, each trader can now check themselves in our downstream "FitforFuture-Test" to find out where they stand and where there is room for improvement," according to Christoph Werner, Senior Vice President Trade Fair Management of Koelnmesse.

Markets are constantly changing and, as a consequence, also the needs of customers. In order to intensify this understanding and be able to react to possible challenges "just in time," THE TIRE COLOGNE, together with the Institut für Handelsforschung in Cologne (IFH Köln), has carried out an extensive study and survey of the tyre trade in five core markets - in Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, France and Poland. Managing directors, owners and masters from companies in the specialist tyre trade from five countries were surveyed, and secondary research and interviews was carried out. The survey focused on the clusters of digitalisation and digital tools and automobile mega-trends, as well as personnel recruiting and continuing training of staff.
 

A short summary of the study results:

Digitalisation is bringing big challenges for tyre retailers: The European tyre trade is changing rapidly. This is being propelled by changing customer behaviour. The customers of the tyre trade have considerably higher expectations of service than in the past and expect communication on all channels with coordinated sales and service offerings. Digitalisation is also changing and is placing one sector after the other in question - the tyre trade must keep up with the general digital transformation. The challenges relating to this have for the most part been recognised and tend to be evaluated with reference to the chances. Nonetheless, there are sometimes shortcomings in implementation. The reason: the tyre trade isn't daring enough. The broad portfolio of digital tools has not yet been utilised consistently. In addition to this, mega-trends are classified as science fiction without looking for one's own advantages in the here and now.

Tyre trade will soon face a personnel problem: This is exacerbated by a massive personnel problem - at least in most European countries. The tyre trade is already facing problems recruiting new employees in the core area of the workshop, but also with the acute line of succession. And there are no effective remedies in sight.

What needs to be done?: The tyre trade must develop a certain amount of self-confidence. This must correspond with the core requirements of the digital age - meaning, be present on all channels and be based on smooth and rapid processes. Only then can one provide profitable offerings, products and services. In addition to this, the tyre trade requires a broader portfolio of digital instruments for internal and external use. More practice and continuity in the usage of these instruments is also required. In addition to this, the tyre trade requires creative solutions and must develop convincing arguments extending beyond the standard offerings, in order to find and bind more employees.

FitforFuture test and best practise

All results of the THE TIRE COLOGNE study - complete, as a management summary, but also the evaluations of the individual countries and core topics - are available for download on the website of THE TIRE Cologne at https://www.thetire-cologne.com/the-fair/tireresearch/tireresearch.php . Furthermore, on the website of THE TIRE COLOGNE the FitForFuture test can be used effective immediately to check how one's company is developing in terms of #DigitalTransformation, #DigitalToolbox, #Recruitment/ human resources development and #Trends.
Subsequent to this, he will immediately receive the test results and relevant best practice examples from the aftermarket, but also from other retail industries.

Of course, findings from the study will also play a role in the context of the congress and event programme of THE TIRE COLOGNE, where the four core themes will be discussed with industry participants and experts in special theme forums. Subsequent networking events provide exhibitors and visitors with additional added value while looking at the study and discussion results in greater depth.

 

 

Tyre manufacturing, the black art of bringing seemingly incompatible materials together into a flexible pressure container matrix that will stand being driven over rough surfaces at high speed. Tyres have the reputation of being the most complex single item on a modern motor vehicle. F1 cars are not limited by their engines or aerodynamics; the tyres are the limiting factor. How many people getting into their car or onto a bus for their daily commute even consider what is supporting the machine they are riding in … in my honest opinion <1 percent.

The art (and I say this quite deliberately) of getting rubber to adhere to a steel cable is very deep (and some say troublesome) level, or some may say science, but I prefer to think black magic. Even the layup design of the cables of the high-quality steel filaments that are wound together to form the essential strength of the radial tyre is absolutely critical. Rubber must adhere to the steel at a rate of 100 percent. Having witnessed corrosion progressing along individual wound cables, I can attest to the fact that if there is a gap in the structure, it will be filled eventually; nature abhors a vacuum.

The metals used to promote the adherence of the rubber are special; you can’t go to the metal shop and buy them off the shelf. In the recycling industry, tyre steel is always a highly sought after product as the quality and properties of the steel make it high value. This steel accounts for some 15–20 percent of the tyre’s mass.

There are three distinctly different profiles of steel in a modern steel radial tyre. The body cords are laid up into cables, whereas the steel belts as we know them are a different design with individual filaments formed into a steel mesh. Again, this steel has to be treated or coated so as to engage the rubber of the belt and tread package to adhere and meld into a single unit during curing. Then there are the bead bundles, worthy of another discussion but subject to the same requirements of steel to rubber adhesion.

Like a lot of manufacturing these days, robots are continuing to overtake humans as the preferred method of building. The reasons are the same as every other industry – machines don’t need meal or toilet breaks, aren’t given annual holidays or public holidays, but most importantly, the machines are extremely accurate in performing their duties.

Having inspected numerous tyres over my career, I have observed on enough occasions the internal elements are not as per the design. Whilst the green (uncured) tyre can be laid up as per design, when the green tyre is placed into the mould for curing, any control is lost. The design of the mould becomes another highly critical factor. The mould has to be closed without disturbing the design requirements. Under pressure, the rubber has to flow into the tread design evenly and without flow laminations, the belt packages must adhere to the body cords and everything must stay in alignment, which is a huge ask. Like baking a loaf of bread or a cake, when it goes into the oven, the final product must align with the design.

With the computing power behind AI, such designs can be simulated or trialled in coding rather than producing a steel mould only to find it doesn’t work as expected. In the early days of giant OTR bias tyre manufacturing, I included strips of white rubber onto the green tyre before it was placed into the mould. These strips showed just how much the rubber moves during the expansion of the green tyre into the mould cavities. This was a time consuming and expensive exercise as the tyre was

not saleable; it was a trial tyre only. These development costs all flow into the retail costs; volumes of scale are evident in tyre manufacturing.

With the performance of the modern motor vehicle, we ask and expect so much more of our tyres; they have to be quiet and smooth, grip the pavement in all circumstances, and did I forget, they must last the life of the vehicle as people don’t wish to replace their tyres as often as they should. Then, above all, the tyres have to be low cost; I don’t say cheap as quality is often the first victim of a cheap manufacturing exercise.

As we’ve observed, large-scale manufacturing can and does affect the end result. One only has to consider the rise of EVs to understand just how change in magnitudes can happen when technology takes over. Some may say for the good, while others the polar opposite.

Think about ADAS (auto driver assistance systems); some say useful, others say it’s just a pain. What would happen if this same technology was applied to a tyre? The driver wants to go one way, the car the other; now we think the tyre is trying to do something otherwise, technology tying itself in knots.

I believe we are about to see the same large magnitude changes coming to tyres where information from the tyre is fed into the ECU on the vehicle to determine how much power or braking is applied, what steering angle can be deployed considering the traction available; this is all driving towards autonomously controlled vehicles. Think about this level of change for a minute. Just this weekend, we’ve seen robots break Usain Bolt’s 100 metre running record. Some looked like a tyre gator after they’d finished, but nevertheless, it demonstrates how has fast technology is changing. I’m not sure that I can fully understand let alone digest this progress. No need to call me a dinosaur, I already wear that label.

With the combination of AI and robotics, manufacturing is entering a new age where quantum steps will be made. How do we as humans deal with this?

Do we continue to drive our cars manually or hand over some or all control to machines?

I for one will continue driving my vehicles manually for the most; sure I use cruise control, but having the vehicle steer for me, no thanks. Just as in aviation the pilot earns their money when the stuff is dripping from the fan, when things don’t go right, humans can still engage in extraction from the hazardous situation, most times. If we haven’t programmed a machine to deal with the circumstances it encounters, how is it going to deal with ‘it’? Human decision making is still (at this point in time) required. What happens when human decision is no longer required?

Take care. Look after your tyres frequently or at least regularly.

Why The Future Of Manufacturing Needs An India–Latin America–China Dialogue

The future of manufacturing is no longer being shaped by technology alone.

Artificial intelligence, automation and advanced materials will certainly transform factories. But geopolitics, trade tensions, access to raw materials and supply-chain security are increasingly determining where companies produce, where they invest and how industrial capacity is distributed around the world.

For the tyre industry, this shift is already visible. Manufacturers are reconsidering their global footprints. Production is moving closer to strategic markets, supply chains are being diversified and companies are balancing efficiency against the risks of excessive dependence on individual countries, suppliers or transport routes.

Manufacturing capacity is once again becoming strategic capacity. And that should lead us to reconsider not only how industrial value is created, but what happens to that value once a product leaves the factory.

THE VALUE ALREADY MANUFACTURED

Can a tyre be considered truly sustainable if it is manufactured efficiently but cannot remain in use?

At first sight, this may appear to be a question about retreading, but it is a question about manufacturing.

When a commercial tyre leaves a factory, it contains much more than rubber and steel. It embodies raw materials, energy, engineering, technology, labour and manufacturing capacity. Considerable industrial value has already been created.

The strategic question, therefore, is not only how efficiently we can manufacture the next tyre. It is also how effectively we can preserve the value of the tyre we have already manufactured by keeping it in productive use.

If access to raw materials matters strategically, using those materials intelligently should matter as well. If manufacturing capacity is valuable, preserving the value created by that capacity should also become part of industrial strategy.

This gives retreadability a different meaning.

Retreading is usually treated as a downstream activity, beginning once the manufacturer’s role has effectively ended. Yet the ability to keep a tyre in productive use begins much earlier. It is influenced by design, engineering, material selection and, fundamentally, the quality and durability of the casing.

Retreadability, therefore, is not only an issue for the retreading industry. It is also a manufacturing consideration.

This does not mean innovation should be constrained to accommodate existing retreading processes. The challenge is whether innovation can advance while preserving the ability of a valuable industrial product to remain safely and economically in use.

As we design the tyre of the future, are we also designing it to remain in use?

THE GEOPOLITICS OF A LOCALLY GROWN TYRE

As geopolitical uncertainty encourages local-for-local manufacturing, shorter supply chains and regional production, the tyre industry is rediscovering the strategic value of proximity. But perhaps the concept of local production should not end when the original tyre leaves the factory.

A retreaded commercial tyre has an interesting characteristic: much of the additional value required to keep that tyre operating can be generated locally.

The casing is already present in the economy. Its continued use can be enabled through local inspection, technical knowledge, skilled workers, retreading plants and domestic transport networks. In that sense, retreading can create something particularly relevant in a more fragmented global economy: a locally grown tyre.

The expression should not be understood literally. The original tyre may have been manufactured thousands of kilometres away and its raw materials may have originated in several countries.

What becomes local is the additional industrial value. An economy can use its own technical and industrial capabilities to keep an existing asset productive rather than depending exclusively on another newly manufactured product entering through an international supply chain.

For many Latin American economies, which remain dependent on imported tyres and industrial inputs, this has particular significance. But the principle reaches beyond Latin America. As countries debate reshoring, nearshoring, strategic autonomy and supply-chain resilience, keeping existing industrial assets in productive use deserves a place in that discussion.

Viewed through this lens, circularity is not only an environmental strategy. It can also become a resilience strategy.

WHY INDIA, LATIN AMERICA AND CHINA?

This brings us to an opportunity that deserves greater attention: an India–Latin America–China dialogue on circular tyre manufacturing. Its value lies precisely in the differences between the three regions.

India is strengthening its position as a global manufacturing power, combining growing international ambitions with an enormous domestic mobility market and significant requirements for raw materials. Latin America operates at a different scale but sits at the intersection of important industrial relationships with North America, Europe and Asia. Commercial tyre retreading has also been part of its transport economy for decades, providing practical experience in keeping manufactured assets in productive use. China brings another dimension: extraordinary manufacturing scale, technological depth and supply-chain capabilities that have reshaped the global tyre industry.

The purpose would not be to determine which model is superior. None of these regions has all the answers. Their experiences are valuable precisely because they are different.

What could India’s manufacturing expansion learn from markets where extending product use has long been economically necessary? What could Latin America learn from the transformation of Asian manufacturing? And what could India, Latin America and China discover together about designing tyres whose industrial value can be preserved for longer?

Those questions could form the beginning of a very different relationship.

FROM TRADE TO INDUSTRIAL DIALOGUE

India, Latin America and China already have substantial commercial relationships. Tyres, machinery, raw materials, technology and investment move between these markets. But knowledge should move as well.

Much of the relationship between tyre-producing regions is still understood through exports, imports, tariffs and market access. These issues will remain fundamental, particularly as the international trading environment becomes more complex. But the restructuring of global manufacturing creates an opportunity to move from trade relationships towards industrial relationships.

What should durability mean for the next generation of commercial tyres? Should retreadability become a more explicit consideration in advanced tyre design? Can digital traceability allow manufacturers, fleets and retreaders to better understand the history and remaining value of a casing? And can circular economy policies distinguish more effectively between recovering materials and keeping a manufactured product in productive use?

These are not simply questions about retreading.

They are questions about how industrial value should be managed in the future. Industry associations are particularly well positioned to begin that conversation. Companies naturally approach these issues through commercial interests, while governments see them through trade, industrial or environmental policy. Associations can occupy the space between them, connecting manufacturers, retreaders, fleets, technology providers, researchers and policymakers.

An India–Latin America–China dialogue does not require another international organisation, nor should it begin by attempting to harmonise three very different markets. It could start simply as an exchange about how we manufacture, how long we use and how much industrial value we are capable of preserving.

The purpose would not be to demonstrate that one region has found the correct model. It would be to ask better questions together.

BEYOND THE FACTORY GATE

The factory of the future will undoubtedly be smarter. Artificial intelligence, automation, advanced materials and increasingly efficient production systems will transform how tyres are manufactured. But geopolitics is reminding industry that efficiency alone does not determine industrial strength. Resilience matters. Access to resources matters. Manufacturing capability matters. And the ability to make better use of what an economy already possesses may matter increasingly as well.

For the tyre industry, that means looking beyond the factory gate – not only towards what happens when a tyre eventually becomes waste but towards what happens to the industrial value created when that tyre was manufactured in the first place.

Can a tyre be considered truly sustainable if it is manufactured efficiently but cannot remain in use? Perhaps the future of manufacturing should not be measured only by how intelligently we create industrial value. It should also be measured by how intelligently we keep that value in use.

For a global industry navigating a more fragmented and uncertain world, that may prove to be much more than a circular economy argument. It may become an industrial strategy.

And that is a conversation India, Latin America and China should start together.

The focus of tyre regulations has shifted towards sustainability. Our research on passenger car radial tyres (PCR) strength evaluation and the strength testing requirements in the IS15633 standard aligns precisely with this trend. Before discussing why, the traditional plunger-strength test has become irrelevant for evaluating PCR tyres, let us first consider the benefits of eliminating it. Based on Continental’s engineering experience, waiving the strength test allows for an average reduction of 0.7 kg (range: 0.5–0.9 kg) in cap ply material. This translates to saving approximately USD 0.70 in material costs per tyre while simultaneously lowering rolling resistance, which yields a carbon reduction benefit of about 6 kg per tyre in-use-phase. Given that the Indian PCR market involves approximately 32 million replacement and 20 million original equipment PCR tyres, the potential annual impact includes saving roughly 40,000 tonnes of material, cutting costs by about USD 43 million and reducing carbon emissions by approximately 370,000 tonnes; over a 10- to 20-year horizon, these would yield substantial societal sustainability benefit. This paper examines the history of the strength test and addresses the issue of its unsuitability for evaluating PCR tyres and provides supporting arguments to help realise these prospective benefits.

It is well‑documented that tyre‑strength testing originated to address road‑hazard impact damage. Tyre strength evaluation protocols were developed specifically to address damage caused by such impacts. Literature indicates that, starting in the 1960s, tyre‑and‑wheel damage caused by striking potholes, road shoulders or curbs became a major safety concern for automotive OEMs. The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) categorised this form of damaging impact as ‘road hazard impacts’. Over the following six decades, multiple test methodologies – including tyre strength tests (Plunger test), pendulum‑impact tests and full‑vehicle obstacle‑impact tests – were developed for new PCR to assess road‑hazard‑impact effects on treads, sidewalls and wheel assemblies. This work clarifies the fundamental nature of tyre‑strength‑related problems and traces the origin and evolution of these test methods. It aims to furnish a technical basis for industry and regulatory authorities to revise strength‑test standards and to support tyre manufacturers and vehicle OEMs in appropriately applying these evaluation methods when resolving consumer complaints about tyre performance.

I. WHAT IS A ROAD‑HAZARD IMPACT?

Damage to tyres and wheels resulting from driving over potholes or obstacles such as curbs and speed bumps is defined as a damaging road‑hazard impact (Figure 1). Such events remain common on real‑world roads today.

II. WHAT IS TYRE-STRENGTH EVALUATION?

Tyre‑strength evaluation assesses the external‑force thresholds at which a tyre undergoes structural failure, as well as the corresponding failure force and energy levels. Structural failure denotes rupture of reinforcing cords within the carcass, cap ply or belt layers, leading to air leakage, bulging or related defects. It is critical to distinguish air leakage caused by sharp‑object punctures – a puncture‑resistance and air‑retention concern – from true structural‑strength failure. Sharp‑object punctures can often be repaired, or leakage mitigated through sealant application. By contrast, structural damage arising from severe road‑hazard impacts is non‑repairable. Major tyre‑industry associations uniformly advise consumers against continuing service use of tyres that have sustained such structural failure.

We emphasise that air leakage from sharp‑object punctures does not constitute a tyre‑strength issue. A comparison between damage generated in a plunger‑type strength test (Figure 2(a)) and nail puncture damage (Figure 2(b)) highlights this distinction: plunger‑induced failure ruptures belt layers and creates large tears in the inner liner, whereas nail‑style sharp‑object punctures do not rupture reinforcing layers and produce only a small inner‑liner wound.

Figure 2(a) Tyre damage caused by plunger strength test

Figure 2(b) Tyre damage caused by nail puncture88  

III. DISTINCT DAMAGE PATTERNS FROM ROAD‑HAZARD IMPACTS: RADIAL VERSUS BIAS‑PLY TYRES

Research demonstrates that road‑hazard‑impact damage manifests differently for bias‑ply and radial tyres. For bias‑ply tyres, impacts predominantly generate crown‑region damage; for radial tyres, impacts most commonly produce sidewall bulging and wheel‑assembly damage.

These divergent failure modes stem from fundamental structural and material differences between the two tyre architectures. As shown in Figure 3(a), bias‑ply tyres use rayon, nylon or polyester reinforcing plies arranged in criss‑cross orientations at angles below 90° relative to the tread centreline, running continuously from one bead to the opposite bead. This forms a monolithic structure with high overall integrity and stiff sidewalls. The tyre resists bending, and its constituent structural elements do not deform independently under external loading. By comparison (Figure 3(b)), radial‑tyre carcass plies run at approximately 90° relative to the tread centreline, extending bead‑to‑bead. The tread circumference is further reinforced by two steel belt layers plus a rayon, nylon or polyester cap ply. This creates a dual‑component architecture: a rigid, robust crown coupled with a flexible, air‑spring‑like tyre body. The carcass exhibits high elasticity, sidewalls deform readily under load and the tyre absorbs road impacts with unique dynamic behaviour under external forces.

(Figure 3 (a) Schematic of bias-ply tyre design)
(Figure 3 (b) Schematic of radial tyre design)

THE STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BIAS-PLY AND RADIAL TYRES REVEAL THE FOLLOWING:

(1) The materials used for the circumferential cap ply and belt layers in radial tyres possess greater strength than the rayon, nylon or polyester belt materials found in bias-ply tyres;

(2) Because radial tyre sidewalls are highly flexible and prone to deformation, impact forces often cause damage to the vehicle suspension, rim or sidewall (such as bulging) before the tyre crown accumulates enough energy to suffer structural failure. Traditional strength testing involves a 19 mm plunger vertically compressing the tyre crown to simulate the forces experienced when a tyre strikes a small road obstacle (like a stone). CT images captured during a strength test of a 185/60R15 88T tyre clearly show that the plunger must descend almost to the point of touching the rim before it can puncture the crown plies and belt layers to reach the failure energy limit. This process causes incredible sidewall deformation due to the tyre’s high flexibility; however, in real-world driving conditions, the rim or suspension system would sustain damage long before the tyre could undergo such extreme deformation from a road impact.

Figure 4 CT scan imagery captured during tyre‑strength testing

A detailed structural comparison between bias‑ply and radial tyres appears in the February 2020 paper Observations on Tyre Plunger Strength and Bead Unseating Performance by Professor Joseph D Walter (University of Akron). Walter notes that bias‑ply plies form a rhombic (parallelogram‑like) structural arrangement, while the combination of belt layers and carcass plies in radial tyres yields a triangulated structural configuration. Figure 5 contrasts the load‑driven deformation characteristics of these two architectures.

Within bias-ply tyres, measurable changes in cord angle occur repeatedly during the loading and unloading cycles of each tyre rotation; consequently, the rhombic structure of the bias plies is also referred to as a ‘shear’ structure. These angular changes induce significant shear strain within the rubber, leading to the accumulation of hysteretic heat – an effect that is markedly reduced in radial tyres due to their triangular structural configuration. In modern radial tyres, the carcass ply material (whether polyester or rayon) situated beneath the steel belt layers forms a stable triangular structure that reinforces the tread area. These deformation-resistant triangles provide vastly superior strength and rigidity compared to other structural designs. Without the underlying carcass plies, the belt cords – whether steel or textile – would simply form a non-rigid rhombic structure, resulting in performance characteristics identical to those of bias-ply tyres.

Figure 5 Deformation differences between rhombic‑shear and triangulated structures

Figure 6 Strength‑evaluation criteria defined within SAE J918

In summary: the monolithic structure of bias‑ply tyres and dual‑component architecture of radial tyres produce fundamentally different failure modes under road‑hazard impact. Radial tyres deliver well‑established advantages in vehicle handling, ride comfort, service life, rolling resistance and lightweight performance. The industry’s shift from bias‑ply to radial construction necessitates updated assessment approaches for impact‑related damage, particularly for low‑aspect‑ratio radial tyres. Legacy strength‑evaluation criteria originally designed for bias‑ply tyres cannot simply be carried over unchanged.

IV. EVALUATION APPROACHES FOR ROAD‑HAZARD‑IMPACT DAMAGE

1. Road‑hazard‑impact evaluation for bias‑ply tyres:

Tyre‑strength testing and crown‑ply‑rupture assessment were pioneered in the United States. In 1965, SAE published SAE J918, Passenger Car Tyre Performance Requirements and Test Procedures, establishing tyre‑strength test procedures and defining minimum failure‑energy acceptance criteria for rayon‑, nylon‑and‑polyester‑constructed bias‑ply tyres.

Full original theoretical rationale for these early performance metrics is no longer traceable. Nevertheless, historical literature yields notable observations:

1) The standards specified higher strength limits for nylon or polyester than for rayon. In effect, strength‑performance limits were calibrated to match the tyre‑construction raw materials in use at that time.

2) The standards established minimum strength requirements not only for bias-ply tyres – which were the norm at the time – but also for radial tyres. Production radial passenger‑car tyres were not fitted as original equipment on US vehicles until 1970. Given the absence of vehicles equipped with radial tyres on the road back then, the limits clearly were not derived from real-world issues specific to radials; instead, the standards simply adopted the bias-ply strength limits – a practice that has persisted for 60 years despite the lack of an empirical basis regarding radial tyres.

2. Road‑hazard‑impact damage for radial‑ply tyres:

By the 1990s, radial‑tyre market penetration in the United States approached 90 percent. SAE practitioners then recognised that road‑hazard‑impact failure modes for radial tyres diverged sharply from those seen with legacy bias‑ply tyres. Real-world radial-tyre impact events typically produce sidewall or rim damage. The plunger‑style strength test, which was designed to assess tread‑crown robustness, provides little meaningful insight into these real‑world radial‑tyre failure modes. Accordingly, SAE released the SAE J1981 in 1994: Road Hazard Impact Test for Wheel/Tyre Assemblies, introducing pendulum-impact test to simulate damage to complete tyre‑wheel assemblies. In a February 2020 letter to the NHTSA (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration), the USTMA (U.S. Tyre Manufacturers Association) stated: “By 2000, the industry recognised that radial tyres were not susceptible to the specific damage modes targeted by [traditional] strength tests; automakers also observed that radial tyre sidewalls were relatively ‘soft’, meaning that impacts with potholes or obstacles often resulted in suspension or rim damage, or sidewall bulging, rather than tread-area failure.”

Our research highlights that both pendulum‑impact tests and plunger‑strength tests originated as successive SAE methodologies addressing road‑hazard hazards, reflecting the distinct failure physics of bias‑ply versus radial tyres. Additional supporting documentation comes from Tyre Laboratory Strength Test Validation Report (NHTSA‑2000‑8011‑0020). In March 2002, NHTSA floated a proposal to replace traditional plunger test with pendulum‑impact testing per SAE J1981, envisioning pendulum impact as a dynamic alternative for tyre‑strength assessment. Figure 7 displays representative impact strikers used within that NHTSA research programme, including wedge‑form impactors and a 50 mm cylindrical striker conceptually analogous to plunger tips used in commercial‑vehicle tyre‑strength testing.

Figure 7 S Impact strikers evaluated for NHTSA pendulum‑surrogate‑strength‑test research

Test outcomes from this project disappointed NHTSA; the proposal failed to gain acceptance across tyre and automotive stakeholders. In 2002, the Rubber Manufacturers Association (RMA), Ford Motor Company and the European Tyre and Rubber Manufacturers’ Association (ETRMA) explicitly commented that pendulum‑impact testing primarily evaluates complete wheel‑assembly damage from road hazards. Its standalone suitability for assessing tyre‑intrinsic strength required further refinement and validation. As a result, NHTSA formally withdrew its proposal to substitute pendulum impact for plunger‑strength testing in June 2003, while research activities targeting radial‑tyre‑suited strength‑assessment methods continued.

During 2011‑2013, Germany’s VDA (German Association of the Automotive Industry) and WDK (German Rubber Industry Association) built upon SAE J1981 to investigate correlations between laboratory pendulum‑impact results and full‑vehicle impact behaviour. Their studies demonstrated poor correlation between pendulum‑impact measured energies and energies observed in full‑vehicle obstacle‑impact events, corroborating why NHTSA’s 2002 proposal could not succeed. WDK member companies nonetheless derived a dimensionless ‘f‑value’ via empirical formulas incorporating tyre‑geometric and load parameters; this f‑value exhibited partial correlation with full‑vehicle impact speeds. These research outputs were subsequently published within the VDA 11‑2016 technical guideline.

It should be noted that the validity of the f-factor evaluation relies on its correlation with vehicle impact speeds; if this correlation is disproven, the f-factor loses its viability. Furthermore, the f-value in the VDA-11 method is intended as a design reference for sidewall strength during the development of specific vehicle models, rather than as a general strength evaluation metric for tyres independent of specific vehicle models. We found that neither the SAE method nor the VDA f-value could serve as a general strength evaluation method for radial tyres without relying on parameters specific to a vehicle model (such as wheel assembly strength, suspension stiffness and vehicle load). To verify this finding and gather evidence, Continental Tyre conducted validation tests in China in collaboration with the National Tyre Quality Supervision and Inspection Center. By comparing vehicle-based impact tests and pendulum impact tests across two vehicle platforms and using various obstacle heights, the following observations were made:

Figure 8 Comparative test results: Golf 7 versus Regal

(red data points = Golf 7; blue data points = Regal)

1. For one fixed vehicle platform, laboratory pendulum‑derived f‑values show partial correlation with real‑vehicle damage‑onset impact speeds, yet this correlation remains unstable. Substantial f‑value scatter can occur at constant impact velocity, and conversely, similar f‑values may correspond to very different impact speeds.

2. Tyres yielding identical f‑values in pendulum testing exhibit divergent damage‑threshold impact speeds when fitted on different production vehicles. In our test campaign, the ratio of damage‑threshold speeds for the Golf 7 and Regal vehicles approximated the ratio of their respective curb weights.

3. Damage‑threshold impact speeds show an approximately exponential dependence on obstacle height. Changing obstacle height therefore exerts an exponential influence on measured test outcomes. (Figure 9)

Many consumer complaints about sidewall bulging relate to damage incurred at relatively low driving speeds, for instance after striking potholes or kerbs. Defining

Figure 9 Regal impact‑test results: 80 mm vs 100 mm obstacle heights (red points = 100 mm obstacle height; blue points = 80 mm obstacle height)

tyre‑performance limits expressed via vehicle‑specific impact speeds or f‑factors – further adjusted for tyre aspect ratio – cannot adequately resolve real‑world consumer‑complaint scenarios. Such an approach also departs from the original technical intent of SAE‑and VDA‑defined pendulum‑based f‑values, which were conceived to correlate against full‑vehicle impact‑speed observations. Consequently, applying f‑factors or vehicle‑specific impact‑test outcomes as universal tyre‑strength‑evaluation criteria remains unfeasible at present.

Legacy plunger‑strength‑test procedures were conceived for bias‑ply tyres. A radial tyre’s plunger‑strength‑test performance tells us nothing about its real‑world propensity for sidewall bulging, rim damage or suspension damage following impact events. Plunger‑strength‑test results cannot characterise radial‑tyre road‑hazard‑impact robustness. Retaining the existing plunger‑strength‑test requirement for radial tyres solely for lack of a replacement methodology serves no practical purpose.

1. Provide sufficient consumer training explaining that radial tyres – particularly low‑aspect‑ratio variants – are inherently vulnerable to road‑hazard‑impact damage (e.g. pothole, curb strikes) as a direct consequence of their structural design.

2. Impact‑resistance degrades as tyre section height decreases. For vehicles intended for harsh‑road operating conditions (e.g. off‑road platforms), vehicle‑designers and end‑users should select appropriately‑specified tyres. Avoid fitting low‑aspect‑ratio wide tread tyres optimised for high‑performance road‑car track use onto off‑road‑oriented vehicles purely for aesthetic reasons.

3. Expand market‑level training and public guidance on identifying sidewall‑bulge damage and associated tyre‑replacement requirements, preventing tyres with observable bulges from remaining in‑service and creating safety hazards.

Radial‑tyre architecture delivers high‑stiffness crown regions paired with flexible, low‑stiffness sidewalls. Ongoing market trends towards lower aspect ratios exacerbate sidewall‑bulge failure risks. Industry stakeholders should communicate realistic operational limitations of radial tyres to end‑users and educate consumers on mitigating road‑hazard‑impact risks, rather than persisting with obsolete, functionally‑irrelevant legacy strength‑test requirements or adopting new, theoretically‑contested strength‑factor metrics to resolve real‑world service‑complaint tensions. In particular, hastily‑mandated sidewall‑strength minimum limits risk impeding market progress towards high‑performance, low‑aspect‑ratio radial‑tyre deployment.

We hope these preliminary research findings support industry and regulatory stakeholders addressing real‑world consumer‑and‑technical challenges. This work informs further deliberation over the continued applicability of legacy tyre‑strength testing, as well as the potential adoption constraints of pendulum‑impact‑based assessment and f‑factor methodologies, while preserving the dynamic‑performance and structural‑design advantages intrinsic to radial tyres.

VI. OUTLOOK FOR FUTURE RADIAL‑TYRE‑STRENGTH‑EVALUATION WORK

1. Owing to radial tyres’ structural‑mechanical characteristics, real‑world road‑hazard‑impact events predominantly produce sidewall damage; secondary damage may occur on wheel‑hubs or vehicle‑suspension components. Crown‑region structural failure is rarely observed. Accordingly, the existing plunger‑strength‑test methodology cannot deliver actionable insights for modern radial‑tyre assessment.

2. The shift towards radial‑tyre construction is irreversible. Removing prescriptive sidewall‑strength mandates unlocks design freedom for tyre dynamic performance, enabling improvements in vehicle handling and low‑emission capability. This represents an advanced tier of automotive safety, realising lightweighting and energy‑saving potential that would otherwise be constrained by rigid strength‑test requirements.

3. When handling consumer complaints about bulging sidewalls on low‑aspect‑ratio UHP/UUHP high‑performance radial tyres, stakeholders must recognise the trade‑offs inherent to radial‑tyre dual‑component architecture: superior dynamic performance comes alongside inherent sidewall‑impact‑vulnerability. Vehicle OEMs need to fully understand the operational characteristics of low‑aspect‑ratio high‑performance tyres, and communicate clearly to end‑users. Consumers should be made aware to avoid abusive curb‑strike events while benefitting from high‑performance‑tyre capabilities. Test data demonstrates that raising obstacle height from 80 mm to 100 mm can reduce the tyre‑damage‑onset safe‑impact speed by as much as 43 percent.

Advancing passenger car radial tyre and high-performance tyre technology to achieve lightweight and sustainable performance is the industry’s forward-looking development priority. This study clarifies the historical context of tyre strength evaluation practice; it supplies technical background to support proposal on revision of relative Indian IS standard and delivers practical guidance for consumers operating high‑performance tyres as well as for vehicle‑OEM tyre‑specification engineers.

The author is the Head Of APAC Standards And Regulations, Continental Tires.

The tyre industry is entering one of the most transformative phases in its history. Manufacturing is no longer defined only by production capacity, compound formulation or tread design. The future will be shaped by how effectively manufacturers combine advanced engineering, intelligent manufacturing, sustainability, application-specific innovation, smart technologies and global competitiveness.

For us at Rubber King Tyre Pvt. Ltd., the direction is clear: the tyre of the future must perform reliably where conditions are most demanding. This philosophy is captured in our brand promise: ‘RULE THE TERRAIN – Tyres for the Untamed’.

It represents more than a tagline. It reflects how we see the future of tyre engineering – developing products capable of performing across challenging agricultural fields, construction sites, mining environments and demanding material-handling applications as per customer expectations.

Devin Gawarvala

FROM TYRE MANUFACTURING TO PERFORMANCE ENGINEERING

Customers today are increasingly evaluating tyres on total performance rather than purchase price alone. Tyre life, traction, load-carrying capability, resistance to cuts and wear, heat management, equipment uptime and overall cost per operating hour are becoming critical considerations.

This is particularly relevant in the OTR, agriculture and industrial segments, where operating conditions can vary dramatically.

The future, therefore, belongs to application-driven tyre engineering. Instead of developing products primarily around dimensions and specifications, manufacturers will increasingly engineer tyres around the machine, terrain, load cycle, operating hours and customer requirements.

At Rubber King, this approach aligns closely with our focus on pneumatic and solid tyre solutions across agriculture, construction, mining, OTR and industrial applications. The company currently operates four manufacturing facilities in Gujarat and has built its product philosophy around durability, performance and precision engineering.

SMART MANUFACTURING WILL REDEFINE CONSISTENCY

The next major transformation will take place inside tyre factories.

Automation, digital process monitoring, data analytics and increasingly intelligent manufacturing systems will enable manufacturers to achieve greater consistency while improving productivity and reducing process variations.

However, smart manufacturing should not simply mean installing more automated equipment. Its real value comes from connecting people, processes, machines, materials and data.

Data generated across mixing, component preparation, building, curing, inspection and testing can help manufacturers identify variations earlier, improve traceability and strengthen preventive quality systems.

For Indian manufacturers, this presents an important opportunity. Combining our manufacturing capabilities and engineering talent with greater automation and digitalisation can significantly strengthen India’s position as a global tyre manufacturing hub.

SUSTAINABILITY MUST WORK ALONGSIDE PERFORMANCE

Sustainability will also become fundamental to the future of tyre manufacturing.

The industry will need to examine the complete product lifecycle – from sourcing raw materials and improving manufacturing efficiency to extending tyre life and addressing end-of-life recovery. Recent industry research is already demonstrating the potential of bio-sourced materials, recycled inputs and recovered carbon black to reduce the environmental footprint of tyre production while maintaining required performance standards.

For manufacturers, the challenge is to ensure that sustainability does not come at the cost of durability or safety.

In demanding OTR and industrial applications, a tyre that lasts longer can itself contribute to resource efficiency. Extending service life, reducing premature replacement and improving operating efficiency should therefore form an important part of the sustainability conversation.

The future will require manufacturers to achieve both objectives: lower environmental impact and higher product performance.

R&D WILL BECOME THE COMPETITIVE DIFFERENTIATOR

As equipment becomes more powerful and applications become increasingly specialised, research and development will play an even greater role.

Compound technology, casing design, tread geometry, heat dissipation, rolling resistance, cut and chip resistance and load optimisation will continue to evolve. At the same time, faster testing and feedback from real-world applications will allow manufacturers to shorten development cycles.

Rubber King’s R&D approach includes product development, technology upgrades, process optimisation, material evaluation and testing procedures aligned with internationally recognised standards.

The objective must be simple: understand the application before engineering the tyre.

INDIA HAS AN OPPORTUNITY TO LEAD

India’s manufacturing ecosystem is moving from being viewed primarily as a cost-competitive production base towards becoming an engineering and innovation partner for global markets.

For Indian tyre manufacturers, this creates a significant opportunity.

To compete internationally, however, we must benchmark ourselves against global standards – not only on price but on product consistency, technology, service, innovation and application knowledge.

At Rubber King, our international presence across more than 90 countries reinforces our belief that Indian manufacturers can develop products in India while competing confidently across global markets.

The next decade of tyre manufacturing will ultimately be about engineering confidence – confidence that a tyre will perform when the terrain becomes difficult, the load becomes heavier and the operating environment becomes unpredictable.

That is where manufacturing technology, R&D and customer understanding must come together.

Because the future will not always operate on perfect roads or predictable surfaces.

It will be built for the untamed.

RULE THE TERRAIN – Tyres for the Untamed.

The author is Entrepreneurial Founder & Director, Rubber King Tyre Group